I am my hair:
The effects of colonization on hair
and beauty practices in Namibia and Sierra Leone
Tina Terrell Brown
Georgia State University
Author Note
Tina Brown, Department of
Psychology, Georgia State University
Correspondence concerning this
article should be addressed to Tina Brown, P.O. Box 5010, Department of
Psychology, Georgia State University, Atlanta, Georgia 30302-5010. Email: tbrown109@student.gsu.edu
INTRODUCTION
Statement
of Topic
There are silent colonial
repercussions that exist in the form of diminished self-identity, self-esteem,
cultural value and camaraderie among African people due to apartheid and
various forms of colonization (Hocoy, 2000).
A deep survey on the perceptions of
hair, beauty and self-identity among colonized and traditional African cultures
may reveal the deprivation of positive self-identity for those whom have been
forced to adopt or conform under Western influence. This proposal will validate
the anticipated research of hair beautification and self-identity for African
women in non-colonized areas in contrast to colonized areas that were and still
are much more subject to Western influence and power.
Hair happens to be a form of
significant cultural value that is shared and highly valued among most African
women. In a 2000 exhibition review, Sieber and Herreman explain African hair
styling is extremely significant in tribal distinction, ceremonies, social
status, mating practices, aesthetics, ethnicity or even personal reflection.
Distinct hair braiding practices and styling such as cornrowing originated out
of western Africa, specifically the Nok civilization of Nigeria (History of
Cornrow Braiding, n.d.). In Radiance
from the Waters: Ideals of Feminine Beauty in Mende Art, Sylvia Ardyn Boone
explores the culture and practice of hair braiding and styling as a traditional
grooming technique. She also reveals the relationship hair has to the perceived
notion of a woman’s status, hygiene, femininity and even fertility for females
of the Mende culture in Sierra Leone.
The Mende people of Sierra Leone
remained independent of direct colonialism influence, and several adulthood
rituals, rites of passage and beautification practices involving hair
maintenance, treatment and styling remain intact today. Other southwestern
African states such as Namibia that were widely and rigidly colonialized by
German settlers, lost value of their traditions as well as the freedom to
practice them.
African hair also represents a
constant query and interest of outside groups. There has long been an obsession
with the variety of African hair texture. Books such as Man by Dr. R.
Ruggles Gates has an entire chapter devoted to the an intricate table and
breakdown of hair types observed in South Africa. A table less involved but
with added racial hierarchy context can be seen in a research study titled Table for the General Shape of Negroe’s Hair
by Júnior
& Rodrigues.
An analysis of data collected
through in depth surveys in both Sierra Leone and Namibia would bring a deeper
understanding of how colonialism affects not only hair practices but overall
beautification and ultimately the relationship it has to self-image and
self-identity.
A direct comparison of self-identity
has not been made between African women who experienced the depletion of their
traditions and those whom are free to practice as they see fit. An
investigation of hair and grooming practices of the colonized region of Namibia
and the non-colonized region of Sierra Leone can be the first among several
steps to explore culturally relevant themes of beauty and self-perception. It
is important to understand the relationship between self-esteem and self-worth
and how that is connected to hair styling and beautification for African women.
In his 2000 study, Hocoy explains
that although many negative consequences may be born out of harsh colonization
and diminished cultural practices, many positive responses such as esteem,
coping skills and racial identification are developed unconsciously.
An attempt to more accurately assess
the psychology behind African beauty practices and the effects of colonization
is necessary in developing a more culturally aware system to address problems
specifically in Africa (Hocoy, 1999). Another study in 1999 conducted by Elirea
Bornman found a strong link between the perceived status of an in-group such as
race, skin color or hair and the level of satisfaction with self.
Self-image can be defined in many
different ways. In Radiance from the Waters, Boone beautifully describes
the culture and practices specifically for Mende women. Hair styling and grooming plays a significant
role in self-identity, group inclusion, societal and cultural status. The air
tight secret societies for both men and women in the Mende culture allow sacred
traditions to be passed down and practiced by future generations.
For other populations, such as the ancient kingdoms
of Northern Namibia, most of their traditions have been lost through the force
of German colonizers that considered the ancient practices to be barbaric and
savage like behavior. A European standard was set and enforced to achieve what
was thought to be “civilized” practices (Shigwedha, 2006).
Aims
and Significance
This study intends to find the
relationship of colonization to self-identity for Africans as it regards their
hair and beauty regimens. Hair being an extremely important cultural phenomenon
will be the basis for a contrasting comparison of Namibian women and Mende
women. The goal is to bridge the gap in research by comparing two historically
different (colonized and not colonized) groups for a better understanding of
how colonization destroys not only cultural practices but unwillingly divides
and segregates groups and families. Thereby limiting the traditions carried
forward using fear, intimidation or even death, certain eccentricities can be
lost along with healthy self-identity and esteem.
Research conducted by Dan Hocoy and
Elirea Bornman separately in 1999 was a great contribution in the field of
cultural psychology, specifically for South Africa. This research proposal aims
to add value and significance to this same field of study. By collecting a new
body of data, we can begin to understand on a macro level what it really means
to have positive self- identity and self-image. On a micro level, a deeper and
culturally relevant understanding can begin about the construction of these
ideas for diverse individuals.
LITERATURE REVIEW
Background
and History
Northern Namibia and the Ancient
Kingdoms
Set in South Africa, Namibia's west
coast sits along the Atlantic Ocean. With inhabitants since 14 A.D., Namibia
has a long a jaded past of being ruled and controlled by outside forces. In Namibia
Under German Rule, Helmut Bley describes in detail the catastrophic impact
of multiple wars, colonization, economic and political ruin that took place in
Namibia. In 1884, German colonialism came into the region and Namibia remained
within the grasp of harsh control and dominance until the end of World War
I. It was then mandated over to South
Africa by the League of Nations in 1920 (Bley, 1996 ; Dore, 1991). During this
time, the rules of apartheid were enforced. What was left of this country after
the internal wars of Nama and Herero, was then salvaged and divided among
European settlers. Bley also builds a strong argument to explain how the brazen
acts of the German settlers caused divide among the native people.
Building on this societal breakdown
is Lovisa T. Nampala, co-author of Aawambo Kingdoms, History and Cultural
Change. Perspectives from Northern Namibia. This book gives extraordinary
detail and historical reference to the original Kingdoms and social circles of
Northern, Namibia. Nampala brings focus to three major kingdoms that all
experienced colonialism, but at different times and to different degrees. Her
research hypothesizes that there may have been a difference in the amount of
colonial interference and therefore cultural shifts based on the country
invading, the amount of contact with the invading country, and the political
systems in place.
Co-author of Aawambo Kingdoms, Vilho Shigwedha explains in vivid detail
along with imagery how important and significant cultural costumes and beauty
practices were to the Aawambo kingdoms. His thesis examines how and why
Christianity and colonialism changed and displaced the traditional culture of
the people from the Aawambo kingdoms which we now know as Northern, Namibia. He
also details the link between the construction, value and identity of these
societies to their traditional costumes and practices is very strong. Although
colonialism gave strong influence and direction to abandon these practices,
they were extremely well developed and the equivalent of any modern civilization
today.
Hair styling for Aawambo women was
seen as a significant source of communication to the inner circles of society.
Age, class and gender all had distinct hair rituals that spoke volumes about
the person's status and affiliation. In a blog by Cosmic Yoruba, she provides
amazing images of West African styles of pre-colonial eras. Girls starting at
the age of six wore differentiating hairstyles from childhood through puberty
onto adulthood. Hairstyles were used to signify the different stages of development
from maturation, fertility, preparation for marriage, initiation and full
womanhood. Men also had hairstyles to signify their age, affiliation and social
status (Shigwedha, 2006).
Hairstyling also served as a
marker of kinship between wives and husbands, mothers and daughters, elders and
younger generations. Generational wisdom and traditional values were
communicated and connected through hair practices (Shigwedha, 2006).
The Secret Society and Mende Culture of
Sierra Leone
Sierra Leone is a West African
country bordered by Guinea and the Atlantic Ocean. There are fourteen districts
within the four administrative regions. There are roughly sixteen ethnicities
throughout, each with a native language and set of customs. The two largest
groups are Temne and Mende. The Mende society is a highly elaborate and
discrete culture. Highly guarded by an initiated group of members, its
practices are rarely researched and as Boone elaborates in Radiance,
research that has been completed, somehow vanishes from archives.
The Mende are described as a very
strong and vibrant group with both political and cultural dominance. They
managed to take control over several regions of Sierra Leone, currently
spanning the entire southern region. The Mende were also triumphant in battling
the British and keeping out other infiltrators of colonialism. There was a
short period of British rule from 1898 to 1961 but the Mende people were able
to keep their customs and traditions intact and carried them forward even still
today (Boone, 1986).
There are two groups within the
Mende. Those that have been initiated into the secret society are known as harlemo.
The others that have not been initiated or are from outside cultures are
considered kpowa, usually know as ignorant and simple-minded (Boone,
1986).
The initiated society has access to
all knowledge of human nature and science. This enlightenment process is a
necessity for Mende. The female population of this group is known as Sande.
The Sande woman is one that possesses knowledge, power and responsibility. She
possesses all knowledge of caring for her home, children,
beautification, ethics and healing practices. The good name of the society is
upheld through the grooming and etiquette practices of Sande women (Little, 1951).
Hair is intrinsic in its value and status especially
among Mende women. Men wear closely shaven hair and are thought to not possess
hair at all. Women on the other hand bask in the glory of their hair. The more
hair you have, the more feminine and beautiful you are viewed. Abundant and plentiful hair is directly
related to a woman's beauty, value and esteem as Boone has investigated.
Presentable hair is always groomed extensively. Washing, moisturizing and
oiling of the hair is a standard practice as well as making sure the hair is
jet black in color. Other colors indicate uncleanness or not being properly
groomed (Boone, 1986 ; White, 1987).
The Sterilization of Namibia
A German instrument called the
Haarfarbentafel was a color and texture hair chart manufactured in the
early 20th century. In the introduction of
The Archaeology of Race: The Eugenic Ideas of Francis Galton and
Flinders Petrie by Debbie Challis, it explains this chart, similar to a
hair color swatch seen in salons to today was used to create race hierarchy,
determine worth, oppress and even justify killing African people. Its target
was specifically those in the Northern Namibian kingdoms that were thought to
be of mixed-heritage. Hair texture was used to determine if individuals needed
to be executed. A recent lecture and film event title Death by Hair was
presented in London at The University of Central London (UCL). The UCL museum
actually owns a rare Haarfarbentafel that was developed and designed in the
early 20th century by Eugen Fischer. The item known as a “killing
machine” in the Archeology of Race was used as part of the eugenics
cleansing movement in which Fischer promoted and carried out racial
sterilization of mixed heritage populations in southwest Africa, known today as
Namibia.
According to Michael Williams in the
article Hitler’s Holocaust Blueprint, the
tragedies that occurred against the Namibia people would later set the
foundation of what Hitler would us against the Jews.
Although, these practices are long
gone and would seem unacceptable today, the lasting effects can more than
likely be seen in the self-identity, esteem and cultural norms among men and
women and their ritual of beautification practices today in those regions
(Bornman, 1999).
Justification
for Study
There have been many studies looking
at the effects of apartheid on South Africans. While this period in history has
caused much trauma and cultural breakdown, there have been other detrimental
colonial events in which psychological damage has been done to the native
people of Africa. Conducting a comparison survey will allow more knowledge to
be acquired towards understanding the real effects of colonialism as it relates
to psychological trauma. This work will posit to fill a gap in determining just
how different self-identity and self-image develop when there is deep rooted
colonialism and when there is not.
Adequate and extensively thorough research does not
fully exist. Cultural psychologists and anthropologists need expansion on macro
meanings for self-identity and self-esteem. Part of the end goal is to create a
broader interest in how self-identity and esteem is especially fragile and
endangered for groups when fear, anxiety and inferiority influence beauty
practices.
METHODS
Research
Plan and Methods
Setting
This
research will be conducted in two parts; the first setting being in the
southern region of Sierra Leone amongst the Mende population. The second part
of the study will take place in northern Namibia, in the capital city of Odangwa.
Sample
and Recruitment
100 women from both regions will be
asked to participate through snow-ball sampling. Age minimum will be based on
cultural standards of adulthood.
Measures
An in-depth interview using a
50-item cultural self-identity scale (CSIS) will be used to collect the data.
This likert scale modeled similarly after the Rosenberg self-esteem scale
(RSES) will have a five point system measuring from strongly agree to strongly
disagree. A follow up interview will take place as well with open-ended
questions allowing the women to express more freely their thoughts or ideas.
During the preliminary cultural immersion phase of both regions, language study and culture
phenomenon will be deeply studied in order to adapt the cultural self-identity
scale and its questions to be as accurate and relevant as possible.
Self-esteem, self-identity and hair
beauty will be the focus of this interview. Sample questions will include:
How
important is your hair?
Do
you like your hair?
How
did you learn to care for your hair?
How
important is hair for women?
Do
you know the history of your hair techniques?
How
does your hair make you feel?
Procedures
Women in both regions will have one
of four research team members facilitate the interview. The primary investigator
and one fully trained research assistant will conduct all follow up interviews
to insure integrity of the questions asked as well as tone and delivery. All
sessions of interviews and follow ups will be recorded. Both the scaled
interview and follow up interview should take 30 minutes each.
Analysis
This cross-sectional study will
produce results that will be adjusted for proper analysis. Results found will
be qualitative data that will be transposed into quantitative data. The data
collected from the likert scale results will be analyzed using ANOVA method.
After numbers have been computed, they will be tested again for significance.
Research
Hypothesis
Mende Women have higher self-esteem and
self-identity relating to their hair than Namibian women due to the lesser
effect of colonization.
Timetable
At least six months of cultural
immersion will be needed to gain trust among the initiated society of the Mende
people, specifically to build relationship with the women of Sande.
·
Refinement
of research method – 3 months (part of 6 month cultural immersion)
·
Collection
of data – 3 to 6 months
·
Analysis
of data – 3 months
·
Execution
of final research – 3 months
·
Dissemination
of findings via publication and lecture – 6 month
This same process will be duplicated
for the research conducted in Namibia with the exception of the cultural
immersion period. This can be reduced to three months. The total amount of time
needed is a maximum of two years to produce a significant contribution of
empirical research.
DISCUSSION
Expected
Outcomes and Benefits of Study
The benefit of this study includes
an analysis of data to determine the effects of colonization on self-identity
and esteem and the needed development of African psychologies (Hocoy, 1999).
The psychology in acceptance of self is highly indicative of overall positive
self-identity (Bornman, 1999). The more research that can be completed in this
area will also fuel the need for other cultural relevant studies to be done.
The expected result is that the Mende women, being from a non-colonial region
will have higher self-esteem regarding their hair as opposed to Namibian women
who were once under harsh colonization (Lovisa, Shigwedha, 2006).
Implications
& Future Research
This research study has the
potential to contribute towards cultural psychology and anthropology. It will
also serve as a step in the direction of cultural balance in the awareness of
self-esteem and self-identification. Individuals within collectivist cultures
often have different views of self and familial relations. This is important to
understand before researching or collecting data. This area of study will also
provide new research opportunities to add to this body of work. The data will
also be relevant to global and local clinicians, counselors and educators.
In addition, this will give a
better foundation to research conducted involving the complexities of
self-esteem for African-American women. Although this is a study of African
women, it is important to understand the influences of western beauty standards
on all women of the African diaspora in the both their native land and in the
United States. Research by Noliwe Rooks in 1996 and Kathy Russell, Midge Wilson
and Ronald Hall in 1992 began to uncover the stigma and standard that was created
for women of African descent in the U.S. post slavery.
In
multiple blogs by authors such as Yaba Blay, Kemi Ogunniyi and Jackson Biko,
the discussion of colonial mentality often surfaces. This is the idea that
although someone may be in their native land, they still act and practice
accordingly per the western influence that was pervasive during colonization.
This adds to the need of additional research in studying the after effects of
colonization. Interpretations of beauty involving skin color, hair texture and
styling are the focal point often, shedding a light on the damage Western
beauty standards have done.
There
are more discussion as well being had about the current state of self-esteem in
South African people and the concept of collaborative self-esteem versus
individual self-esteem which takes center stage in the U.S. (Volpe, n.d. ;
Lumumba, 2014). There is much work to be done to help foster positive
identities and a lot can be accomplished if self-esteem issues are addressed
(Michel-Ange, 2014).
Ethical
Issues
This study is intended to collect
valuable data as it concerns the advancement of African and cultural
psychologies. All appropriate privacy and patient confidentiality procedures
will be followed to insure integrity. Written consent will obtained by all
participants in the study. Local government approval will be applied for before
research begins and the Institutional Review Board from my home institution
will provide approval for this study as well.
Limitations
of Study
Limitation of this study will
include using a new self-esteem scale that has not been tested before. We also
face the limitation of missing cross-cultural references that may go unnoticed
due to our unfamiliarity of the culture. Adaption of the measures will be done to
the best of our ability but still may be flawed. Given these limitations of
measure, findings of the research will be analyzed and disseminated
accordingly.
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